MORPHOLOGY I. - poznámky

MORPHOLOGY I.

Verb = sloveso

different in the terminology

Predicative = prísudok

FLEXIBILITY

Morphology

Syntax

Analytical (English)

- they use phrases

Language patterns

Synthetical (Slovak) - they use suffixes

→ In Slovak we do no think in phrases.
→ In English we do ⇒ one phrase is grammatically one unit

Language is a stream of sounds.
We can divide it into units:

a) phonological
b) lexicological
c) grammatical

Grammatik is a part of language.

LANGUAGE UNITS

Discourse analysis

1

Phonetics

Phonology

Orthography

Graphology

GRAMMAR

Semantics

(Lexic)

(Discourse) = prehovor, text, rečový celok

F) Sentence

SYNTAX

E) Clauses

(vetné členy)

D)

Clause elements → S, V, Od , Oi, A, Co , Cs , Ap

C)

Phrases → NP, VP, PP, AdvP, AdjP

(new words still appear)

Open

→ Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb

MORPHOLOGY

B) Words – word classes

parts of speech

Closed

→

articles

Closed →

articles

(fixed words)

demonstr.

(no new words are appearing)

pronouns

prepositions

conjunctions

interjections (citoslov.)

auxiliary verbs

LEXICOLOGY

A) Morphemes
(the smallest units)

LANGUAGE UNITS

SENTENCE

2

Simple

Compound

Complex

determinants

If I study English language, I will pass the exam.

CLAUSES

- If I study English language -
- I will pass the exam -

CLAUSE ELEMENTS

-

If -

-

I -

-

study -

-

English language -

-

I -

-

will pass -

-

the exam -

WORDS

- If -
- I -
- study -
- English -
- language -
- I -
- will -
- pass -
- the –
- exam -

PHRASES

- in all phrases is one main word:

3

1.) Noun Phrase (NP)

→ structure = d – m – h – q
→ The tall girl is sitting here.

2.) Verb Phrase (VP)

→ auxiliary verb (more) + full verb (one)
→ She goes home.

FV

→ She is sitting.

AV FV

→

It will be reconstructed.

AV FV

3.) Prepositional Phrase (PP)

→ consists of a preposition + prepositional complement

prep. prep.complement

→ The book is on the table.

PP

4.) Adjectival Phrase (AdjP)

→ (may be) intensifier + adjective
→ She is tall.
→ She is very tall.

Intensifier = adverb of degree

(a bit, much more, very)

5.) Adverbial Phrase (AdvP)

→ (may be) intensifier + adverb
→ It is hard.
→ It is much more harder.

CLAUSE ELEMENTS (vetné členy)

1.) Subject

4

→ S (kto? Čo?) – podmet tak ako v slovenčine

2.) Verb

→ V (čo robí? čo sa s ním deje?) – prísudok = predicate – v AN je to verb phrase

3.) Object

a) Object direct – Od – (koho? čo?) – there is just one Od in a sentence

– when there is an Oi after and Od it is an adverbial

– I gave a book to him.

S V Od Adverbial

b) Object indirect – Oi – (komu? čomu?) – always must precede object direct

– Od follows Oi
– I gave him a book.

S V Oi Od

c) Object prepositional – Op – it is an Od with a preposition

– We are talking about him.

Op

4.) Complement

a) Subject Complement – Cs – it has the same referent as Subject

– Cs always link with Subject with linking or copular verbs
= is, to be, became, turned, seems = just on verb
–

Cs made either a NP or a AdjP

– She is a student.

S V Cs

b) Object Complement – Co – it must always follow an Od

– I find English easy.
S V Od Co

5.) Adverbial

→ príslovkové určenie miesta, času, spôsobu, príčiny (Adverb = príslovka)

6.) Apposition

→ prístavok
→ My older brother, Peter, is not here.

appos.

NOUN PHRASE

5

STUDENTS

1.) The students

2.) The best students

3.) The first ten best students

4.) The first best ten students studying at the Uni where I used to study

NOUN PHRASE

zistím to tak, že to viem zameniť za “THEY”

1 NOUN PHRASE = 1 CENTRAL DETERMINER

6

ARE HERE.

premodifiers

ALL OF THE FIRST TEN BEST STUDENTS IN OUR SCHOOL.

determiners

qualifiers

Students

⇨ head ⓗ

All of the first ten best

⇨ premodifiers – všetko pred head ⓗ

best

⇨ modifier ⓜ– an adjective – one modifier is one adjective phrase = qualifier

All of the first ten

⇨ determiners ⓓ - všetko pred modifier ⓜ - all before adjectives

the

⇨ central determiner

All of

⇨ pre-determiner – všetko pred central determiner

first ten

⇨ post-determiner – všetko po central determiner

in our school

⇨ post-modifiers – všetko za head ⓗ

in our school

⇨ qualifiers

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CENTRAL DETERMINERS ARE:

 articles (a, an, the)
 demonstrative pronouns (this, these, that, those)
 possessive pronouns (my, this)
 phrases (Janes´s book)
 “wh” determiners (which, whose, what)
 quantitative determiners (some, any, each, every, either, no)

→ IN ONE PHRASE THERE IS ONE CENTRAL DETERMINER

we can not multiple central determiners

some books of John – NOT some John´s books

PREDETERMINERS ARE:

 words like all both, half

all

both

half

2 special words → what + such

⇒ there are phrases (what a nice girl, such a nice girl)

 fractions = zlomky

one third of the….. =

⅓ of the students

 multipliers

twice a day

three times yours

8

the students
of the students

POSTDETERMINERS ARE:

 NUMERALS – they are not considered to be world classes

– they are considered to pose as post determiners in noun phrases

①ordinals = radové číslovky

a) ordinal numbers (the first, the second)

b) general ordinals (next, last, following, previous, proceding)

②quantifiers = základné čislovky

a) cardinal numbers (one, two, three, four, five)

b) general cardinals

 closed-class quantifiers (many few, little, much)

 open-class quantifiers

⇨ aa + ofa → a piece of

→ a box of

→ a bit of

→ a lot of

→ a slice of

→ a couple of

→ a loaf of

→ an arm full of

➔

keď sa dá vytvoriť otázka “how many?”

⇒ tak je to quantifier

QUALIFIERS ARE:

 prepositional phrases (in our school)

 clauses = vedľajšie vety

a) finite clauses (students who studied at university)

b) non-finite clauses (students studying at university)

 post-posed adjectives (post positioned)

a student responsible for

general secretary

9

angel guardian

 non-finite verb phrases (I saw the boy running)

NOUN PHRASE

head → keď je head – väčšinou tam býva the, this, that

is

The number of students is increasing.

determiner qualifier

A number of students turned up.

quantifier head

10

NOUNS

→ Definition of nouns:

 by meaning – the name of things, persons
 by form – some suffixes for nouns
 by function – a noun is a word-class that functions as a head of a noun phrase

→ Classification on nouns (TABUĽKA 1)

a) proper nouns

b) common noun

 count
 uncount

o concrete

o abstract

→ Grammatical categories of nouns:

 number
 gender
 case
 person

11

12

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

TABUĽKA 1

UNCOUNT

(mass)

CONCRETE

milk, butter,

gold

ABSTRACT

music, passion

sadness, pain
laziness, time

relationships

love feelings

COMMON

všeobecné

PROPER

vlastné

NOUNS

QUANTIFIERS

Containers – a bottle of, a box of, a cup of

Measurements – meters, kilos, liters

Pieces – a slice of, a chop of, a unit of,

a piece of, a loaf of

COUNT

CONCRETE – table, pig, bun, book, chair

ABSTRACT – dead, mind, difficulty, remark, dream, solution, idea

BOTH

CONCRETE – paper-material, stones

ABSTRACT – work, clothes

Countable

Uncountable

13

NUMBER OF NOUNS

→

Singular + Plural (plural is the most difficult topic to study for memorisation)

PLURAL FORMATION:

1.) REGULAR PLURAL FORMATION

-s, -es ending suffixes

pronounciation

[iz, z, s]

spelling changes before

[y] and [o]

doubling of final consonants

unusual plurals with acronyms or number (1990´s)

titles

abbreviations (pp. = pages, cc. = copies, ll. = lines)

2.) COMPOUND NOUNS – consisting by two or more words

plural is in the first element (mothers in law)

plural is in the final element

→ head - washing machines

- sky scrapers
- school yards
- boy friends
- swimming pools

→ no noun in the compound - forget-me-nots = nezábudka

- grown-ups
- stand-bys
- take-offs

both elements are nouns and both are in plural

→ usually using with man and woman - women doctors

- men doctors

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3.) COLLECTIVE NOUNS - they are singular but they denote more elements

→ family, class, team, band, parliament, nation , government

→ they can be singular or plural depending on the meaning

→ Singular – one team / Plural – every man in the team for himself

My family is ill. - something is wrong with the family

My family are ill. - each of them

Police was… - I mean the institution

Police are… - each policeman

4.) VARIABLES (TABUĽKA 2)

regular plurals

irregular plurals

5.) INVARIABLES (TABUĽKA 2)

singular invariables

plural invariables

REDUNDANCY = zdvojovanie – angličtina sa tomu vyhýba

15

16

FORMATION OF PLURAL

-S

-ES

break-in – break-ins

analysis – analyses

bureau – bureaus

appendix – appendices

breakdown – breakdowns

branch – branches

cargo – cargos

basis – bases

cleff – cleffs

calf - valves

concerto - concertos

calf - valves

donkey – donkeys

crissis – crises

diploma – diplomas

chassis – chasses

echo – echos

chorus – choruses

eye – eyes

church – churches

father-in-law – fathers-in-law

diagnosis – diagnoses

forget-me-not – forget-me-nots

fox – foxes

handkerchief – handkerchiefs

fish – fishes

hanger-on – hangers-on

goose – geese

kimono – kimonos

housewife – housewives

lady-in-waiting – ladies-in-waiting

hero – heroes

MP – MPs

hypothesis – hypotheses

Negro – Negros

knife – knives

niece – nieces

leaf – leaves

OAP – OAPs

lens – lenses

passer-by – byssers-by

life – lives

runner up – runners up

loaf – loaves

solo – solos

lens – lenses

VIP – VIPs

ox – oxen

wolf – wolfs

oasis – oases
safe – saves
sheaf – sheaves
shelf – shelves
syllabus – syllabuses
thief – thieves
thesis - theses
tomato – tomatoes
wife – wives

VARIABLES

OTHERS

apparatus – apparates /apparatuses

bacterium – bacteria

brother – brothers / brethren

cherub - cherubim

cloth – cloths / clothes

datum – data

criterion – criterions / criteria

foot – feet

die – dies / dice

genus – genera

focus – foces / foci

Louse – Lice

formula – formulas / formule

matrix - matrices

genius – geniuses / genii

man eater – men eaters

hoof – hoofs / hooves

man driver – men drivers

index – indexes / indices

man servant – men servants

larva – larvas / larvae

nucleus – nuclei

libretto – librettos / libretti

phenomenon – phenomena

penny – pennies / pence

sanatorium – sanatoria

radius – radies / radii

sheep – sheep

scarf – scarfs / scarves

stimulus – stimuli

tempo – tempos / tempi

species – species

terminus – terminuses / termini

stratum – strata

wharf – wharfs / wharves

tableau – tableaux

tooth – teeth

ultimatum – ultimata
woman hater – women haters

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woman doctor – women doctors

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE

UNCOUNTABLE

BOTH

a

a little

most

a few

Air

my

Award

Advice

the

Accident

Anger

a lot of

Book

Architecture

some

both

Behaviour

Breath

Cash

Bridge

Clothing

Bottle

Clothes

Candidate

Cooking

Coin

Courage

Cough

enough
Education

Cow

Educa

Ceasefire

Equipment

Chair

Engineering

Drop

Fun

Egg

Furniture

Enquiry

Flu

Exam

Harm

Experiment

Hair

Experience

Information

Fact

Intelligence

few

Lightering

Finger

Leisure

Gadget

Laughter

Garment

Luck

Guard

Luggage

Injury

Music

Job

Money

Joke

News

Journey

Peace

Kitchen

Police

Laugh

plenty of

many

Permit
Poetry

much

Research
Progress

Plan

Safety

Permission

Travel
Strength

Poem

Traffic

Question

Work

Report

Water

Remark

Weather

Shower
Reaction

Warmth

Suitcase
Table
Thunderstorm
these
Tune
University
Vehicle
Word

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PARTITIVES

TYPICAL PARTITIVES GENERAL PARTITIVES IDIOMATIC PARTITIVES
a piece of cake

a piece of

a head of cabbage

a slice of bread

a bit of

a bunch of grapes

a roast of meat

an item

a clove of garlic

a bowl of soup

a herd of cattle

a pint of beer

a flock of birds

a pint of butter

a school of fish

team of players

a pair of trousers

a bunch of flowers

a pair of scissors

a crew of helpers

a pair of jeans

a splash of bread

a piece of furniture

a pair of shoes

a new kind of computer

a gang of thieves

a type of wood

a blade of grass

a make of car

a pile of rubbish

a species of mammal

a speck of dust

a flock of sheep

a load of hay
a foot of water
a yard of cloth
a pound of butter
a tone of coal
an ounce of tobacco
an acre if land
a bottle of milk
a splash of soda
a glass of wine
a jar of jam
a loaf of bread
a cup of coffee
a slip of tea
a bar of soap
a drop of water
a bucket of water
a drop of rain
a pinch of salt
a cube of ice
a wisp of smoke
a bar of chocolate
a tube of toothpaste
a sheet of paper
a packet of flour
a packet of biscuits
a box of matches
a lump of sugar

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GENDER OF NOUNS

→ Gender = rod (TABUĽKA 3)

→ in English it is a biological category according to the sex

→ in Slovak it is a grammatical category not reflecting biological sex

→ INCARNATE NOUNS = zosobňované podstatné mená

 higher organism, higher animals

 personification + personalization

- France (which, it / she)

- cars (he)

- boats, ships (she)

 emotional attitude

- pets

SOME MALE AND FEMALE WORD FORMS

MALE

FEMALE

actor

actress

lion

lioness

uncle

aunt

stallion

mare

heir

heiress

hero

heroine

boar

sow

widow

widow

cock

hen

bridegroom

bride

nephew

niece

bachelor

spinster

salesman

saleswoman

bull

sow

prince

princess

monk

nun

ram

ewe

waiter

waitress

tiger

tigress

cousin

cousin

god

goddess

husband

wife

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CASE OF NOUNS

→ There are 2 types of gender in English:

a) Common case (1.pád) – usually a subject in a common sentence

b) Genitive case (2.pád)

GENITIVE CASE

→ MEANING OF GENITIVE

 possessive genitive (Mrs Johnson´s coat. / The ship´s funnel.)
 subjective genitive (Jane’s opinion. / The parents´ consent)
 objective genitive (the family’s support)
 genitive of origin (Dickens´ room)
 descriptive genitive (children’s room)
 genitive of measure – temporal (three-week’s holiday, three-kilo’s baby)
 appositive genitive (the river of the Danube, the city of Bratislava)
 genitive of attribute (The victim’s outstanding courage.)

→ THE GRAMMATICAL STATUS OF THE GENITIVE

Genitives can function as:

a) determiners (My handsome cousin’s new briefcase. / That old gentleman’s son)

b) modifiers (They attend a women’s university. / She lives in a quaint old shepherd’s cottage.)

c) independent genitive (Jennifer’s is the only face I recognize/He has a devotion to work like his father’s.)

d) post-genitive / double-genitive (A sister of George’s is coming to stay with us.)

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1.) - ´S GENITIVE

-

we use -s genitive if it is about people

-

it is a possessive, an inflected case

-

used with:

 personal names (Peter´s brother)
 personal nouns (student´s book)
 collective nouns – when we mean people (government’s decision)

(family’s atmosphere)

(team’s coach)

 higher animals (horse´s tail, dog´s food)

we can use “of” genitive when we speak general

 geographical names, institutional names – when we mean people

London’s history – about people

history of London – about buildings and institutions of London

 temporal nouns (three week’s holiday)

holiday of three weeks – “of” genitive

three-week holiday – no genitive – it is an adjective

 some more nouns connected with human activity (my garden’s duties)
 following nouns – usually phrases: sake, edge (God´s sake, forest´s edge)

2.) “OF” GENITIVE

-

we use -of genitive when we mean non-living things

-

it builds a prepositional phrase

-

used with all inanimate nouns

-

usually requires “the” (the history of London, the landscape of the town)

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3.) ZERO GENITIVE (´ )

-

Singular = ´s / Plural = s´

-

used with:

 regular plurals (three weeks´)
 some names ending with -s (Dickens´ , James´ )
 foreign names
 fixed expressions (goodness’ sake)

4.) GROUP GENITIVE

-

long noun phrases

-

used with:

 “of” genitive ⇨ standard (the life of …)

 ´s genitive ⇨ informal ( my best student’s result)

( the future Prince of England’s life)

( the girl-in-a-red-blouse’s result)

( she is my mother’s brother’s daughter)

5.) GENITIVE WITH ELLIPSES

-

when we use:

 syntactic ( John’s answer is better then Jane’s ) → there is not the “answer”
 fixed expressions – phrases (at the butcher’s, at the baker’s, doctor’s surgery)
 the “place” of someone (grandmother’s place, friend’s place – come to my place)
 pro-forms = instead of forms – that / those (Jane’s book is nicer then those.)

(My car is faster than that.)

6.) DOUBLE GENITIVE

-

post-genitive

that wine of mine

ⓐdaughter of doctor’s → one of his daughters

the book of James´

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ARTICLES

→ original etymologic meaning of “the”

- THAT

→ original etymologic meaning of “a”

- ONE / ANY

→ normally articles are unstressed

- a [ə]

= general, neutral

but sometimes

they are stressed

different meaning – special meanings

“THE”

[đi:]

“A”

[eɪ]

the boss

[đi: bɒs] – presne ten jeden známy

a [eɪ] councelor – akýsi, nejaký

she is the [đi:] Jane Brown – presne tá jedna

RANGE OF REFERENCE

COUNT

NON-COUNT

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1. SPECIFIC

REFERENCE

A) INDEFINITE ARTICLE

(TABUĽKA

4)

- we use it:

just with countable nouns and just in Singular

mentioned for the first time

used in some fixed phrases (once a week, twice a mouth)

in quantifiers (a lot of, a plenty of, half an hour)

unstressed meaning of one (one hundred

⇒ a hundred / one son ⇒ a son)

on a board (on a plane)
in a small space (in a car)

B) DEFINITE ARTICLE

- we use it:

already mentioned facts → anaphoric reference

when

we talk about something what was mentioned

before

when it is obvious which one I mean

open the door, she is in the kitchen

the daughter = just one / a daughter = more sisters

unique items → only one exists

the (a) book

the (some) book

the book

a book

bookes

personal names

calendar items

geographical names

name in connection with noun
(the Comenius University)
(the Slovak Republic)

- the (some) ink

- ink

R

A

N

G

E

O

F

R

E

F

E

R

E

N

C

E

1. SPECIFIC

viacerí špeciálni
z jednej skupiny

2. GENERIC

všeobecne

o všetkých

3. UNIQUE

o jednej osobe

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the Internet, the President

grammatical structure

→ ordinal Plural – the first

→ superlatives – the best

postmodified nouns → cataphoric reference

when something will follow, when it is mentioned later

→ “of” constructions (the development of chart)

(the knowledge of linguistics)

relative clauses (I asked the student who is sitting next to you)

infinitive verb phrase (the student speaking)

adverbial (Could you pass me the book on the table?)

apposition (The student, John Brown, is not here.)

to play the musical instrument (I play the piano)

C) ZERO ARTICLE

- we use it:

Quasi-locatives → expressions “to go” (to go to work, to go to school)

expressions “to be” (to be at home, to be at school)

when we talk about something abstract, about the institution, not the people

(she is in prison = she is imprisoned)

(she is in school = she has lessons)

BUT WE USE “THE” WHEN WE MEAN SOMETHING CONCRETE – THE BUILDING

she is in the prison = she is on a visit in it

she is in the school = she is in the building

means of transport (to travel by bus, by car, to come by train, to go by plane)

means of communication (send it by mail, by satellite, the message came by hand)

seasons – usually they are without article

just specific seasons (this, last, …) are with articles (it was the summer of 1999)

time of the day – at, after, by, before (at sunset, by evening, by day, after dark, before dawn)

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except

except: in the morning, in the evening, in the afternoon

meals – breakfast, lunch, dinner (for lunch, to have breakfast, to have supper)

illnesses and medical terms are without articles when they bear a technical medical name

(she has anaemia / cancer / diabetes / influenza / pneumonia / toothache)

hiccups / measles / mumps → can be with “THE”

cold

flu

headache

fewer, temperature

common prepositional phrases and complex prepositions

(on foot, in step, in tern, out of step, by heart, in case of, with intent to)

binominal expressions used adverbially

(hand in hand, step by step, arm by arm, mile after mile, face to face, side by side, back to back)

opposites (mother and father, student and teacher, boys and girls)

sports (to play tennis, to play football)

these are with „a“

27

ARTICLES

TABUĽKA 4

“OF” – with inanimate
“ ´S” – with animate

Zero article “

Ө”

- expressions “to go” – go to town
- expression “to be” – be at university
- to / at / from / school, university,
college, church, work
- at / from home
- to / in(to) / out of hospital, prison, bed
- to / in(to) / from town
- on holiday
- by car
- by bus
- by plane
- at night
- on foot
- on Monday, on Tuesday
- meals – to / at / after breakfast, lunch
- for lunch, to have lunch, to have dinner
- seasons – in spring, in summer
- at Easter
- at Christmas
- She is in prison. ( = She is a prisoner.)
- You should be in bed. ( = resting)
- time of the day – at, after, by, before
- sports – to play tennis, to play football
- illnesses
- medical terms
- lakes – Lake Windermere
- most mountains – Everest, Mont Blanc
- continents – Africa
- most countries – Germany, Peru
- states, counties – Texas, Oxfordshire,
Normandy
- towns – Ottawa, Prague, Sydney
- most streets – Fifth Avenue,
Oxford Street
- towns + buildings – Oxford University,
York Airport,
Reading Station

Definite article “THE”

- in the morning
- in the evening
- in the afternoon
- specific season (this, last, …) – in the spring,
in the summer
- specific holidays (this, last, …) – What did you do
at the Ester in ´98?
- to play the musical instrument – the piano
- the only
- the best (with superlatives)
- to the cinema
- to the theatre
- hotels, cinemas, theatres – the Ritz, the Playhous
- in the country
- She works as a cook in the prison. ( = in the building)
- I found chewing gum in the bed again. ( = in it)
- the Netherlands
- the Hague
- name includes common noun – the Slovak Republic,
the United States,
the Czech Republic
- seas – the Atlantic
- rivers – the Thames
- deserts – the Sahara Desert
- mountain groups – the Alps, the Himalayas,
the High Tatras
- island groups – the Bahamas
- “of” constructions – the Isle of Man
- most geographical regions – the Far East, the Ruhr,
the Midwest
- the Comenius University
- the Internet
- the President (the one)
- ordinal numbers – the first, the second

Indefinite

article “A”

-in a car
-on a plane
-a flu
-a headache
-a fewer
-a cold
-a lot of
-half an hour
-once a week
-a hundred

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2. GENERIC REFERENCE

A) COUNT NOUNS

-

a tiger (any tiger)

-

the tiger (one typical representative)

-

tigers (most frequently used)

-

limited grammar in generic reference

-

“the…..of” constructions (the students of university)

-

“…..from” constructions (students from Slovakia)

B) NON-COUNT NOUNS

-

“I like….” constructions

-

milk, water, chocolate, tea

C) NATIONALITIES

(TABUĽKA 5)

-

the Slovaks are …

-

the English are …

-

Englishmen are …

D) ADJECTIVES AS A NOUN PHRASE HEAD

-

the rich are… → whole class of rich people

-

the evil is …

-

the better is …

-

the public is …

E) GENERAL SENSE

-

very generally

-

the police, the countryside, the public

-

the press, the media, the seaside

29

NATIONALITIES

TABUĽKA 5

Country

General

adjective

Language

name

Singular noun

with specific

reference

Plural noun

with specific

reference

Plural nouns

used generically

Russia

Russian

Russian

a Russian

Russians

the Russians

Greece

Greek

Greek

a Greek

Greeks

the Greeks

Africa

African

an African

Africans

the Africans

Asia

Asian

an Asian

Asians

the Asians

Europe

European

an European

Europeans

the Europeans

America

American

an American

Americans

the Americans

Australia

Australian

an Australian

Australians

the Australians

Belgium

Belgian

Belgian

a Belgian

Belgians

the Belgians

Brazil

Brazilian

Brazilian

a Brazilian

Brazilians

the Brazilians

Slovakia

Slovak

Slovak

a Slovak

Slovaks

the Slovaks

England

English

English

an Englishman

Englishmen

the English

Germany

German

German

a German

Germans

the Germans

Hungary

Hungarian

Hungarian

a Hungarian

Hungarians

the Hungarians

Italy

Italian

Italian

an Italian

Italians

the Italians

Norway

Norwegian

Norwegian

a Norwegian

Norwegians

the Norwegians

Iran

Iranian

Iranian

an Iranian

Iranians

the Iranians

Iraq

Iraqi

Iraqi

an Iraqi

Iraqis

the Iraqis

Israel

Israeli

Israeli

an Israeli

Israelis

the Israelis

Pakistan

Pakistani

Pakistani

a Pakistani

Pakistanis

the Pakistanis

Iceland

Icelandic

Icelandic

an Icelander

Icelanders

the Icelanders

Ireland

Irish

Irish

an Irishman

Irishmen

the Irish

Britain

British

a British
a Briton

British
Britons

the British
the Brits

Scotland

Scots
Scottish
Scotch

Scots
Scotch

a Scotsman
a Scot
a Scotchman

Scotsmen
Scots
Scotchmen

the Scots
the Scotch

Arabia

Arabic

Arabic

an Arab

Arabs

the Arabs

China

Chinese

Chinese

a Chinese

Chinese

the Chinese

Japan

Japanese

Japanese

a Japanese

Japanese

the Japanese

Portugal

Portuguese

Portuguese

a Portuguese

Portuguese

the Portuguese

Vietnam

Vietnamese

Vietnamese

a Vietnamese

Vietnamese

the Vietnamese

Switzerland

Swiss

Swiss

a Swiss

Swiss

the Swiss

Wales

Welsh

Welsh

a Welshman

Welshmen

the Welsh

France

French

French

a Frenchman

Frenchmen

the French

Holland
the Netherlands

Dutch

Dutch

a Dutchman

Dutchmen

the Dutch

Denmark

Danish

Danish

a Dane

Danes

the Danish

Sweden

Swedish

Swedish

a Swede

Swedes

the Swedish

Finland

Finnish

Finnish

a Finn

Finns

the Finnish

Poland

Polish

Polish

a Pole

Poles

the Polish

Spain

Spanish

Spanish

a Spaniard

Spaniards

the Spanish

30

3. UNIQUE REFERANCE

→ all names, any kind of names

→ Personal names:

-

“zero” article – usual (Peter, Paul Smith, Mr.Brown, Lady Di, George Bush)

– president + name (president Bush) → common nouns behave as proper nouns

– mother, father, sister → they behave as proper nouns

any

common noun meaning proper nouns is without an

article

– calendar items – days, months, seasons, Christmas, Easter

-

“the” article – formally used (the Lady Di, the President) ----- “the” Jane Brown – významná

-

“a” article – “a” Jane Brown – nejaká

→ Geographical names:

1.) if it is one name

⇒ “zero” article (Slovakia, Bratislava)

2.) if the names are in Plural

⇒ “the” article (the Bahamas, the High Tatras, the Netherlands)

3.) of constructions

⇒ “the” article (the Isle of Man)

4.) the name consist of more words and one is a common noun

⇒ „the“ article (the Slovak Rep., the USA)

5.) names of institutions, streets

⇒ might be broken (Comenius University)

6.) rivers

⇒ “the” article (the Danube)

7.) lakes

⇒ “zero” article (Lake Windermere)

8.) mountains

⇒ “zero” article (Mount Everest)

9.) mountain groups

⇒ “the” article (the High Tatras, the Alps)

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PRONOUNS

-

in English we have 7 cases, but grammatically the nouns have the 1. and the 2. case and pronouns

have the 1., the 2. and the 4. case; all other cases are expressed by prefixes, prepositional phrases or

by the fixed word order

-

pronouns are related to nouns

-

the meaning might be different, given by context by grammatical rules

1.) CENTRAL PRONOUNS

a) Personal

 I, me, you, he, she, it, they, them, us, him, her
 they have gender and case distinction
 they have subjective case and objective case
 they can function in various phrases pure me, lucky him
 coordination of pronouns

pragmatic rules how do we combine pronouns:

1. he and she → “she” is allway on the second place

2. you and me → “me” is always the second

3. Peter and I → I am the last one, I am polite

4. You and somebody → the person you address is always the first one

5. She and her brother → pronouns + nouns or names

→ pronouns are always the first

 She is taller than I = standard British English

She is taller than I am = ellipted

She is taller than me = American English, informal style

 “IT” – used for inanimate nouns

– used for the whole clauses - can be replace by “it”

– “dummy it” = “prázdne it” it’s raining, it’s snowing

– “anticipatory it” = “predvídacie it” –grammatical function It’s difficult to speak English

32

b) Reflexive

 myself, yourself, themselves
 they have a reflexive meaning
 used in phrases to emphasise something I did it all by myself. Behave yourself.
 they have Singular and Plural forms

c) Possessive

 my / mine, you / yours, their / theirs
 they are considered to be genitive case
 they function as – a determiner (this is my book)

– as an independent clause element (this book is mine)

2.) RELATIVE PRONOUNS

-

which, that, who, whom, whose,

Ө

-

occur always in relative clauses = vzťažné vety

-

for inanimate nouns we use which and that – that is more

frequently used

-

for animate we use who and whom – who is more frequently use

pred that sa nedáva čiarka, keď je čiarka

⇒

which

My brother, who is 25, is in America. → mám len jedného brata, ten má 25 rokov

My brother who is 25 is in America. → mám viac bratov, ten, ktorý je v Amerike, má 25 rokov

3.) INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

-

who, what, whom, whose, which (opytovacie zámerná )

-

for inanimate we use which – also for choosing from more possibilities

-

for animate we use who – objective case

– of who = standard British English

-

tendency to drop whom

-

Who is your wife? → Mary Smith.

-

What is your wife? → She is a doctor.

-

Which is your wife? → That one.

whose for both

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4.) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

-

this, those, these, that

-

they function as

– determiners - if it is followed by a noun I don’t understand this

sentence.

– functional pronouns - if it stands alone I don’t understand that.

5.) INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

-

they have general meaning

-

they are non-specific

-

most of them occurs in compounds

-

they function as

– determiners

– pronouns

a) Personal

 universal – both, each, every
 assertive – several, some
 non-assertive – any, neither

b) Negative

– nobody, neither

partitives

34

ADJECTIVES

➔ There are no special forms of adjectives, but many of them can be identified by suffixes:

Ө, -able, -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -al, -ic, -y

(comfortable, playful, useless, greyish, dangerous, seasonal, scientific, dirty)

➔ Characteristic features of the adjectives can be:

1.) attributive position (as modified head) -- an ugly painting, the round table

2.) predicative function (Cs, Co) -- she is tall, the painting is ugly

3.) some adjectives can be premodified by an intensifier -- the children are very happy

4.) some adjectives can have comparative and superlative forms – e.g. colours are disputable

the children are happier now, these students are more intelligent

➔ DISTINCTION – TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

a) central adjectives – they function as → attributive and/or predicative

that old man / that man is old

a criminal attack / the attack seemed criminal to us

b) peripheral adjectives – they function → can be only attributive

an old friend of mine, you poor man)

→ can be only predicative

 most common referring to the health of an animate being

he felt ill / poorly / well / unwell / faint

 adj. which can take complementation

able to / afraid of, about, that / aware of / answerable to / fond

35

➔ ADJECTIVES vs. ADVERBS

 adverbs + “ly”

⇒

friendly, kindly

-

normally there is a regular difference of form between an adjectives and an adverb in that

the adverb is distinguished by its –ly suffix

( a rapid car = adjective / he drove rapidly = adverb )

 both without a suffix

⇒

adj.

hard

x adv.

hard

-

some adjectives and adverbs have the same form without the –ly suffix

( Bill has a fast car = adjective / Bill drove fast = adverb )

 adverbs – can have both forms

⇒

hard / hardly

→

but they have an other meaning

-

sometimes there is also an –ly adverb form but with a different meaning

Have you seen her lately?

 adjectives + “ly”

⇒

happy – happily

-

there are some words in –ly that can function both as adjectives and as adverbs

I caught an early train = adjective / We finished early today = adverb

 sometimes there are 2 forms – one is either adjective or adverb and the other is

an adverb with an –ly suffix

Take a deep breath = adjective / Breath deep = adverb / Breath deeply = adverb

36

➔ ADJECTIVES vs. NOUNS

 nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns, but they do not share other

characteristics of most adjectives:

a) there is no corresponding predicative function (the bus station – NOT the station is bus)

b) they cannot be modified by very ( NOT a very bus station)

c) they can not take comparison (NOT a busser station)

d) there is an article contrast (the bus / a bus)

e) there is a number contrast (on bus / two busses)

f) there is a genitive inflection (the student’s essays)

g) there is a premodification by an adjective (the young student)

h) there is a correspondence to a propositional phrase with the noun as complement

garden tool – tools for the garden

 CONVERSION – some items can be both adjectives and nouns

– they have the same form, but they are another word classes

a) there are some adjectives that are in noun form

He is a criminal. / This is the criminal record.

I learn English. / We have an English lesson.

b) there are some nouns that function as adjectives

school x school yard
girl x girl friend

church x church yard

Worcester porcelain x this porcelain is Worcester
those apple pies x those pies are apple

37

➔ ADJECTIVES vs. PARTICIPLES

there are many adjectives that have the same suffixes as participles in –ing or –ed

--- they have a verb form --- boared / boaring

his views were surprising / his surprising views
the man seemed offended / the offended man

1. there are corresponding verb forms

amuse – amusing – amused
annoy – annoying – annoyed

-

when there is a corresponding verb, attributively used –ed forms usually have a passive meaning

lost property – property that has been lost

2. there are no corresponding verb forms

-

they include forms in –ed that have no corresponding verbs

she is talented , she is gifted
the results were unexpected / the unexpected results
his lung is diseased / his diseased lungs
his friend is talented / his talented friends

-

when there are no corresponding verbs – the forms are obviously not participles

3. sometimes there are corresponding verb forms, but they have different meaning

she is very calculating = adjective
she is calculating our salaries = participle

4. some adjectives are compound
good-looking, heart-breaking, open-minded, easy-going

5. some verbs have different forms for verbal use and for adjectives
verbal use – he was drunk / adjective – I saw a drunken man

38

6. some adjectives have pronunciation [d]
beloved, aged, naked, witched

➔ SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADJECTIVES
- adjectives can function in a sentence as :

1.) attributive – when they premodify the head of a noun phrase (small garden, popular ballads)

2.) predicative – when they function as Cs (he seems careless) of Co (I find him careless)

3.) postpositive – post head modifier

 after indefinite pronouns ending in -body, -thing, -one, -where

(something, somebody, anyone, anwhere)
something interesting
somebody suspicious
anyone intelligent
we are going anywhere

 in fixed expressions – usually names of positions at work

notary public, secretary general, angel guardian

 some adjectives that end with –able, –ible

the only person suitable for ….
the work understandable for the students

 some words that usually occurs in this position at the end

concerned, involved, present, desired, absent

4.) adjectable complement – post-modified (doplnok)

❢

 some adjectives normally require adjective complement – non-functional VP

sú niektoré adjektíva, ku ktorým sa žiada niečo dodať
I am happy → I am happy to be here.
The book is easy → The book is easy to read.
English is difficult → English is difficult to understand.
I am glad → I am glad to be here.

 prepositional phrase

suitable for you
interested in …..
afraid of …..

 clauses (vedľajšie vety)

39

I am happy that you say that….
angry that…..
glad that…..

5.) adjectives can have syntactic function as a head of a noun phrase

-

they do not inflect for number of for the genitive case

-

they usually require a definite determiner

-

typically used to refer to certain fairly well-established classes of persons (the brave, the
weak)

 animate (plural + generic reference) – the rich, the young

 inanimate - superlatives (singular) – the latest, the mystical, the best, the unknown

 nationalities – those ending in -(i)sh (plural) – the Swiss, the Dutch, the British, the Welsh

➔ ORDERING OF ADJECTIVES IN PREMODIFICATION

-

in the premodification structure of the noun phrase, adjectives are places

between the determiners and the head of the noun phrase

1. precentral zone – after determiners – peripheral, nongradable, intensifying adj. (certain, sheer, slight)

2. central zone – central adjectives (hungry, ugly, funny, rich, empty, stupid)

3. postcentral zone – participles and coulour adjectives (retired, sleeping, red, pink)

4. prehead zone – denominal adj. denoting nationality and ethnics (Austrian, Midwestern)

– denominal adj. with the meaning of “involving, relating to” (experimental, political)

- radenie adjektív vo vete za sebou, ak ich je viac

1. my oppinion – osobné
2. size
3. shape
4. height
5. girth
6. material
.
.
.
.
.
posledné je compound

nabifliť alebo intuitívne

40

➔ SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

- význam lexikálny, sémantický

stative

x dynamic

-

adjectives are characteristically stative

-

dynamic are that, that are susceptible to subjective measurement

-

stative adjectives cannot be used with the progressive aspect or with the imperative

He´s being tall – NOT Be tall!

- adjectives that can be used dynamically include: brave, calm, cheerful, conceited, cruel,

foolish, friendly, funny, good, greedy,

jealous, naughty, noisy, tidy, helpful

gradable

(descriptors)

x nongradable (classifiers)

- farby → výnimka red--reder ???

- most adjectives are gradable

- gradability is manifested through comparison

tall – taller – tallest

beautiful – more beautiful – most

- gradability is manifeste through modification by intensifiers

very tall, so beautiful, extremely useful

- all dynamic and most stative adjectives are gradable

- denominal adjectives (atomic scientist) are nongradable

- adjectives denoting provenance (British) are nongradable

inherent

(pravý význam)

x non-inherent (prenesený význam)

41

- the inherent adjective applies to the referent of the object directly

a wooden cross = a cross made of wood

- the adjective has some type of metaphoric meaning

a wooden actor = the actor acts not naturally on stage, a bad actor

a perfect alibi / a perfect stranger

42