Intro to literary studies - Kolar

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INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY THEORY
Doc. PhDr.Stanislav Kolář, Dr.

The concept of literature

Literature:

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in broadest sense it is everything in print, in narrower sense it is imaginative
writing

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body of the text considered literary in the particular place at particular time

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higly valued kind of writing

What makes work literary - Criteria:
A) fictionality – opposition between imaginative and non- imaginative

en. e.g Bacon, Dunn, Ruskin – without fictionality

am. e.g. puritans – against drama or fun, destructed attention from God, theatre is
sin, did not write novels, romans, did write only journals, travel books, diary, but
not fiction.

B) factual
e.g. Bible in higly factual but also has artistic qualities, for atteist is it like fiction

e.g Comic book, fictional, no artistic qualities (Spiderman, Hulk...)

Art Spiegelman – Maus – it was graffic novel, comic book with artistic qualities
and it was about holocoust, the story set in Auschwitz (Osvienczim, ) where jews
were mice, german cats, french were rats and americans dogs.

Puculiar use of language – in literature is special organization of language,
especially in poetry

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language draws intention to itself

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literature highlights language – Viktor Skhlovsky – Defamilization, making
langugage unfamiliar, lots of aesthetic forms

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literature makes language strange

Literary language devices – sound, imatury, rhytm, special syntax, metre, rhytm,
various narrative techniques

The definition that the literature is everything in print is not always true, because we
have folklore (fairy- tales, songs), which is also considered as part of literature, but
not printed, only told by retelling stories over years.

General division of literature

NON FICTION – informative, information, more objective
FICTION – artistic, emotion, subjective (prose, poetry, drama – in narrow sense)
FACTION - (essays) something between fiction and non – fiction

Function of literature

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COGNITIVE FUNCTION – literature enriches your knowledge, it brings you
information from various fields of sciences. It´s because literature is influenced by
reality, but sometimes reality is influenced by literature.

Heriet Beecher- Stowe : Uncle Tom´s cabin – during slavery happening in civil war
in USA, about cruelty of slavery, black slaves before war, anti-slavery feelings, which
radicalized american people.

Oliver Wendell Holmes : The old Ironsides – poem about battleship USS
Constitution, this ship was actually made of wood, but it was so good in fight, that is
was said that the the sides of the ship were made of iron (Ironsides). After publishing
this poem, they repaired the ruin of this ship, because the poem criticised ruin of The
Ironsides.

Upton Sinclair : The Jungle – describe poor conditions of workers from Eastern
Europe, immigrants settled down in Chicago, when Theodore Roosvelt read this
book, he decided to check out situation personally and decided to improve it, so it
reflects reality.

AESTHETIC FUNCTION – provokes positive or negative feelings or sentiment
emotions, it can also irritates you, not only for pleasure.

ETHIC FUNCTION – it contents morals, it treats moral questions, it provokes moral
attitudes to reader.

- all of these functions represent, and if some part is emphasized too much, it´s not
good for book or poem. E.g. If too much cognitive function, than boring book. If too
much ethic function – moralistic book.

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL FUNCTION - if too much political, than propaganda.
MIMETIC FUNCTION – literature imitates reality
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LITERARY BRANCHES

Literary theory – forms, categories, criteria, kinds
Literary history – follows the historical development in the literature
Literary criticism – analyzes, estimates, evaluates literary work, uses knowledge of
both first two branches

THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF FICTION
Fiction is defined as prosaic imaginative narrative writing. Narratology – explores
narrative methods

PLOT, CHARACTERS, SETTING, POINT OF VIEW, THEME

A) PLOT – Aristotele firstly emphasizes the role of plot, good narrative part should
have the beginning, the middle and the end.

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Plot vs Story
Plot (sižet) – how the story is told, artistic arrangement of events, certain pattern of
events based on selection.
Story (fabula) – succesion of events, what happened

Plotting – process of converting story the plot, certain pattern of events. Selection of
individual episodes, events, sequence of related actions, which must form unity.

Saul Bellow : Hezog – has chaotic plot, about university profesor, who was
schizofrenic, has chaotic way of thinking. The chaotic way of thinking represents
thinking of modern people influenced by world overcrowded by information.
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Plot structure (composition)

1)exposition, 2)rising action, 3)climax, 4)anticlimax, 5)conclusion

1) Exposition – introduces the scene (when, where, main characters), set the

scene, introductory material

2) Rising Action – complication that leads to some conflict, certain event

complicate situation, conflict between opposite forces (external forces –
physical, internal forces - spiritual)

Conflicts:
Thomas Hardy : Tess of the D´urbevilles – about innocent, beatiful girl Tess, who
was sexually abused by her cousin (Alec), he destroyed her life. Onother guy Angel
had loved her deeply, but on the wedding night he found of she´s not a virgin and he
left her. / conflict: Tess-Alec and Tess-Angel/

Emily Brönte : Wothering Heights – Yorkshire beatiful countryside /conflict
between main character and society/

Theodore Dreiser: American Tragedy – Clyde Griffit is in conflict with the whole
society. He is very poor and he wants to be rich. He has love affair with poor Roberta,
who became pregnant. He decides to marry rich woman Sandra. Finally, Clyde is
accused fo murder and sent to the death provided by electric chair. /conflict with
society/

Graham Green : The heart of the Matter – Scobbie is very strong catholic believer
living in Africa. He fell in love with a woman but he is already married. He could not
marry this woman so he commit suicide. /conflict with idea/

3) Climax – point at which action stops rising and starts falling, moment of crisis,

moment of greatest tension, charactere has to make a choice

William Styron : Sophie´s Choice –about polish girl who has survived concentration
camp. Her choice –which children will die in gas chamber and which survives.

4) Anticlimax – (falling action, deneuement), resolution of major conflict, supring

twist or term in the plot (untying of a knot, untaupting)

5) Conclusion – situation becomes stable. (bad ending, happy ending)

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Endings : indefinite endings (open), definite endings (close)

Bernard Malamud :The German Refuge – jewish author,definite bad end story –
about german journalist who emigrate to USA from GER and that saved his life. He
had troubles with English. One student helps him with English learning, firstly, he was
not very succesul, but finally he did it. Student wanted to congratulate to German
refuge, but he found him dead in his house. He commited suicide. Student foud
letter, in which the man explains, that his wife got killed.

Dan Brown : Da Vinci Code – american author, indefinite ending, because
profesor Langon didn´t finally realised what or who sain´t grail actually is.

Structuring Devices:

1) Suspense (anticipation) – expectation of what is going to happen, provoke

readers curiosity, reader is asking to himself what is going to happen, (serials,
soap operas)

2) Suprise – unexpectevness, we did not expect something, out of expectation
3) Flashback – retrospection, some events from fictional past shows up in

fictional present, character is remembering what happened in the past. William
Faulkner used a lot of flashbacks – you read what happened but you do not
know why, but later you will realise.

4) Foreshadowing – hint, clue of events which will happen later, indication of

events to come. In the beginning author show up what will happen so you can
expect the story.

5) Minimalism – minimalists omit first two parts of the plot and reader is thrown

into the middle of action, reader is involved into the story (Raymond Carver).
Provokes fantasy, you have to think what happened in the story, cause we do
not know the background.

Virginia Wolf – her stories are plotless, without action based on feelings
James Joyce – plot is not so important, but other elements are, action is not
dynamic
John Barth – Lost in Funhouse – simple story about 4 july celebration, simple plot
often interupted by authors complains, that he do not know how to finish the story, i
tis writing in writing

B) CHARACTER – imagine person, but not necessary person (also animal), is
connected with plot

Static Character – misfit character, not changing in the story or minor changes
Dynamic Character – is changing in the story, gone through certain development

V. Propp –(critic) – subject corresponds to character and plot to predicate

Protagonist – central character, main or key character
Antagonist – character, which is opposed to protagonist in the story

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R.L.Stevenson : The Strange Case of Dr. Jackyll and Mr. Hyde – nobel Dr. Jackyll
and bad character Mr. Hyde
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DYNAMIC character – go through certain developement, character is changing
Charles Dickens – A Christmas Carol - bad character change into possitive

STATIC character – go through no changes or only minor changes

ROUND character – fully developed character, complex personality and it is usually
central character

FLAT character – not described in detail, usually one outstanding feature, minor
character
STOCK character – type of flat character , fixed features,we can know
its features in advance, stereotype - Washington Earning : Rip van Winkle- type of
men who runs away his wife to pub, I.B.Singer: Gimpel the Fool – presets type of
cuckold character (paroháč)
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Nomen Omen - we can gues name of the character from name before reading story

Philip Roth : The conversion of the Jesus -about boy who has a conflict with rabbi
(židovský predstavený)- Ozzi Freeman vs Binder – Ozzy wants to be free from
dogmatic rules, Ozzi has always unpleasant questions.

Name of ironic meaning:
Toni Morrison :The Bluest Eye – character Pecola Breedlove – her name is used
in ironic way, she is lonely and she is sexuallly abused by her father

Biblical names:
Herman Melville : Moby Dick – protagonist captain Ahab, they should have certain
motivation behind their behaviour.

CHARACTERIZATION – (presentation)- the methods by which author developes
character

a) indirect – show character through their behaviour and speech or they way of

thinking

b) direct – describes character directly (appearance)

Central Character : protagonist, main character, key character – we have to distinct
between character and hero:

Homer : Ullyses – protagonist Odysseus, hero
James Joyce : Ullyses – protagonist Leopold Bloom, not hero

C) SETTING – place and time of the story, background of the action

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William Golding : Lord of the Flies –novel set on the island where plane crashed,
place is more important than time, group of survived divided into good and evil,
conflict happening during WW2 on isolated Island

Social Context – general environment of characters, certain social background

Nathaniel Hawthorne : The Scarlet Letter – 17 century, New England, shocking
situation for puritan society when young married woman has a child with priest, she
was executed

Naturalism – social and biological determanation

Tone – sometimes established by setting, it represents writers attitude to subject
(humorous, ironic, critical...etc.)

D) POINT OF VIEW – perspective from which all events in the story is seen and
narrated, matter of focus, question is : Who tells the story?

Focalisation - who tells the story

a) fixed foculisation – one narrator, fixed – Daniel Defoe : Robinson Crusoe
b) multiple foculisation – alternates, narrators are different in one story, popular

by modern writers, William Faulkner : The sound and the Fury – each
character narrated by somebody else

Mikhail Bakhtin – literaty critic, novel is foundamentaly polyphonic, novels based on
dialogues, dialog in two or more characters

1) OMNISSION point of view – (third person) – his knowledge is unlimited. All

Knowing Narrator – he is outside of the story, external view, certain objectivity
flexible, wide scope. Has certain danger- it can limit author´s and readers
imagination, Mark Twain – The adventures of Tom Sayer

2) LIMITED OMNISSION point of view – also third person, but from pespective

of only one character, limited view of observation, but advantage is that it is
more natural, closer to reality, authentic

3) FIRST PERSON point of view – author tells story in first person and from

point of view of one protagonist, character. Limited observation, more natural.

Mark Twain – The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn – first person point of
view totally changes the character of the novel, Huck is narrator, Mark Twain
invented completly new story language, which is very close to real life

4) OBJECTIVE point of view – (camera eye, view) author record only what is

seen and what is heard, without comments, it is not so flexible, not
interpretations of events, speed of objectivity, stories are very dynamic,
knowledge is very limited, it depends on reality and dialogues.

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Point of view vs Voice – point of view is who see the story (foculasor), voice is
who tells the story (narrator)

E) THEME – central unyfiying idea about human experience, based on
generalisation, central concept, literary work unity, message of the story
Motif – subordinate to theme, less general idea

NARRATIVE GENRES – based on certain features, qualities

FICTION:

LONG FICTION- NOVELS

A) HISTORICAL classification:

1) Picaresque – early form a novel of adventure, adventures are important,

piccaro (spanish term for arch fellow), characters come from lower class,
narrator is usually main character, very free structure, main character
tends to be witty, funny, travels a lot, Miguel Cervantes de Savedra :
Don Quijote de la Mancha, Daniel Defoe : Moll Flanders, Henry
Fielding : Tom Jones, Ralph Elison : Invisible Man, Jerzy Rosinsky :
The Printed Bind – very brutal novel

2) Chivalric – main topic is chivalric (knight), knight who has to overcome lot

of adventure, troubles of hero to win heart of lady, popular in 15th and
16th century, chivalry = life of knights, Thomas Malory : Le Morte de
Arthur, Mark Twain : A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur´s Court –
one person woke up in medieval ages in King´s Arthur´s home.

3) Gothic – restoring spirit of gothic times, revival of gothic, evokes horror

and teror, mystery, suspense, end of the 18 th century and beginning of
the 19th century, deep forests, remote castles and gloomy graveyards are
evoking horor, character has dreamy visions, usually visions come
through, weather usually windy, stromy, lightnings, very gothic
vocubulary, Marry Shelley : Frankenstein, Ann Radcliff : The
Mysteries of Udolpho, Charles Brown : Wieland

4) Sentimental – popular in the 18th century, concentrates on emotions and

sentiments, Samuel Richardson : Pamela, Lawrence Sterne :
A sentimental journey

5) Romantic – 18th and 19th century, escape from reality to primitive

culture, nature, Walter Scott : Ivanhoe

6) Realisitic – 19th century, about true, typical life, reality, lot of objectivity,

verisimilitude – imitate reality, Henry James, Charles Dickens, Jerome
Salinger, John Steinbeck : The Grapes of Wrath

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7) Naturalistic – people are victims of environment, social and biological

determinism, Urban areas, cities, second half of 19th century, also called
dirty realism, ugly features of our life (alcoholism, prostitute), Upton
Sinclair : The Jungle – character is determined by society, but also
environmentally, Jack London, Theodore Dreiser : American tragedy –
main character is doing everything to become rich.

8) Existential – based on philosophy of existencionalism, not based on

action, Allienation – basic theme, question of life, who I am?, Albert
Camus : Stranger, Richard Wright : Native son – afro american writer

B) Classification according to SUBJECT MATTER

1) historical novel – reconstruct the past, certain period and it´s spirit, Walter

Scott : Wavelry, Ivanhoe – about history of Scotland, Robert Graves :
I Claudius – from times of Roman Empire, William Styron : For Confession
of Ned Turner – Ned Turner wrote memories in prison before he was
executed because he led uprising of black slaves

2) psychological novel – psychological approach to characters, internal life of

characters, psychic, many authors influenced by Sigmund Freud, authors like
Henry James, James Joyce, Virginia Wolf, William Faulkner

3) utopian novel – type of fiction that describe ideal society, ideal world.

Thomas More: Utopia, Francis Bacon : New Atlantis

4) dystopian novel – opposite of utopian novel, everything what is wrong in

society, only negative feature, George Orwell – Nineteen Eighty-Four,
Aldous Haxley – A brave new world (alfa=elite, beta-gamma – others)

5) science – fiction novel – pupular literature based on scientific facts, themes,

Isaac Asimov, Ray Bradbury, Arthur C. Clark, Kurt Vonnegut – he used
fantasy elemets, fantasy is very far away from reality, fantastic world. J.R.R.
Tolkien : Hobbit – not sci-fi, just fantasy

6) detective novel – pupular literature, crime than process to resolve it, Edgar

Alan Poe :The golden Bug, Arthur Conan Doyle : Sherlock Holmes,
Agatha Christie, Raymond Chandler

7) western novel – scene set in the wild american west, popular literature,

frontier= line btw civilization and non-civilized Indian land. Colonizers always
push the native people far to the west, hence western, Owen Wister:The
Virginian

8) novel of adventure – emphasize danger, adventure, threat, Robert L.

Stevenson : Treasure Island, Herman Melville : Omoo, Typee – names of
canibals

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9) university novel - from the university campus, the world of academia,

Kingley Amis : Lucky Jim, David Lodge : Changing Places, in american
terminology called campus novel, humorous, comic tone,

10) road novel – adventures on the road, also movies, Jack Karouac – On the

Road

11) Novel of manners – habbits and costums of social groups described in

details, social life of certain class, Jane Austeen – Pride and Prejudice,
Sense and Sensibility

A) Classification according to TECHNIC OF COMPOSITION:

1) Epistolary novel – written in form of letters, epistel=poetic letter, epistolary

nove does not have narrator and thanks to this can author depict theme from
different point of views, S.Richardson: Pamela, Clarissa, Saul Below :
Herzog, Alice Walker : The colour purple

2) Stream novel (novel river) – series, cycle of novels that present picture of of

certain historical period. It presents this Picture through family or individual in
chronological flow, it flows like river - distinction from historical novel. John
Galsworthy – The Forsyte Sage

3) Stream of consciousness novel – type of psychological novel, the author

records the flow of thoughts and reflect internal life of character. Joyce,
Faulkner, Virginia Wolf

4) Bildungsroman – novel of formation, novel of initiation into some important

aspects (e.g.life of child from its childhood, adolescence to adulthood),
Charles Dickens – David Copperfield

5) Humorous novel – novel that produces comic effect, makes people laugh or

at least smile. Jerome K. Jerome – Three man and the Boat

6) Satirical novel – social criticism, humor based on criticism, Sinclair Lewis,

Babbitt (=conformist), conventional man, average american, conformist

INTERMEDIATE FICTION – SHORT STORY, FABLIOUX, EXAMPLUM, LEGEND,
NOVELETHE

Novella (Novelethe) – longer than short story but shorter than novel, number of
characters are limited, short time spent, Joseph Conrad : Heart of Darkness,
Carlson McCullers : The ballad of the Sad Café

Short story – number of characters are limited, simple plot, time of narration is short,
Edger Alan Poe, Mark Twain, Ernest Hamingway

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Grotesque – humorous elements, humor is important, kind of short story

Arabesque – decoratively descriptive passages, kind of short story

Fabliaux – was humorous tale, was hybrid, criticising morals in the middle English
period, satirically criticizing morals of monks, peasants and women.Precedessor of
modern short story.

Examplum – short, with religious message, were part of sermons with didactic
character. Point out how people should or shold not behave by presenting the
oppostite kind of behaviour.Usually used by preachers. Geoffrey Chaucer – The
Cantenbury Tales

Legend – in middle ages, region theme, short story about saints, later on replaced
by folk heroes, The Arthurian Legends

MINOR FICTION – FABLE, FAIRY TALE, PARABLE, BESTIARY, ANEGDOTE

Fable – amimals are characters, moral message (sententia moralis), animals stand
for humans, moral instruction formulated implicitely or given at the beginning or at the
end of the fable. John Gay : Fables, Rudyard Kipling – The jungle book,

Parable –illustrated story, some analogical situation, the moral instruction is not
formulated explicitely , but follow from whole text by way of analogy.

Bestiary – animals –medieval period, human attribute in animals, have religious
message- distinction from fable, here animals do not stand just for human character
and qualities but also for religious doctrines, which is making it different from fable.

Fairy Tales – reality is supernatural, atemporal – are not set in time, conflict btw
good and evil, good wins, character has supranatural qualities, main character is
usually equiped by wisdom and in struggle with evil usually wins. Good beats evil and
weaker beats stronger, who is usually bad character.

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fantastic, animal, realistic, modern, legendary

Anegdote – short narrative with unexpected humorous poinf

THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF POETRY

Poetry – is something which has more organised structure than prose (pattern,
order)

Sound – certain number of syllables (in Greek), number of stressed and unstressed
syllables making rhytm, melody of music

Diction – choice or selection of words, certain distinctive vocubulary
Style – verses (lines) forming strophes (stanzas)

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Difamilirization – we percieve words unusual, things seen in a new way, figurative
language

Denotation vs Conotation
Denotation – literary meaning of the word, in dictionary
Conotation- suggestion, association (personal), metamorphical language, carry
meaning beyond the literary meaning

A : Figures of Speech

SIMILE : figure of speech based on comparison (like, as, than, seem, apart)

a) Tenor – holder subject of comparism (she is like angel)
b) Vehicle - what tenor is compared to, what is tenor identify with (she is

like angel)

METAPHOR : transfer of meaning from one word to another word, carry something
beyond the meaning, it is like comparison without connective words (like, as), give
poems more meanings, no just decorative function of poem

a) Explicit : tenor and vehicle replaced by verb to be (I am a riddle)
b) Implicit : tenor is absent, (e.g.somebody speaks to much –ocean of words)

Complex metaphor – extended, when all metaphors are gathered or clustered
around one object

Controling metaphor – metaphor that dominate or organise poem

Dead metaphor – by frequent use is not percieved as metaphor anymore

METONYMY – use of expression closely related for something else that we mean
(e.g. I want to buy a Styron – to buy a book from him)

SYNECDOCHY – use of part of the whole and vice versa (my family arrived – some
members of my family arrived)

PERSONIFICATION – compare human qualities to objects or animals

CONCEIT – specific kind, based on comparison of two absolutely different things that
seem to have nothing in common, but poet see some similarty, Edward Tylor –
Huswifery

APOSTROPHE – a kind of rhetorical question, form of adress to somebody or
something , while an answer is not expected

HYPERBOLE – (overstatement) based on exeggeration

UNDERSTATEMENT – we say less than we mean

OXYMORON – connection of two contradictory terms, living corpse, falsely true

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SYMBOL – image load with greatest significance of meaning, suggest more than
literary meaning, red-passion, blue –sadness, green – youth, hope
Archetype – typical image in literature used for a very long time

ALLEGORY – image, which should be used when the idea cannot or should not be
expressed explicitly.Jonathan Swift – Gullivers Travels, Edmund Spencer : The
Faeric Qeen

ALLUSION – indirect refference to some historical event or historical person,
refference to some book...etc, authors expect some knowledge of the reader,
T.S.Elliot : The waste Land – refference to the Bible, Ezra Pound : Cantos

OCCASIONAL POEM poem written about some historical event or situation, Walt
Whitman : When lilas last in the dooryard Bloom - about Lincoln death
SPEAKER – it is not necessary indicated with author, the eye of the poem, Edgar
Lee Maskers – Spoon River Anthology – 200 poems, speakers are different,
dramatic monologues, people who already died in town Spoon River

TONE – authors attitude tu subject of poem – melancholic, humorous, satiric, exited,
ironic, playful

RHYTM – kind of alternation between stressed and unstressed syllables

B :REPETITIONS: formal function

1) REFRAIN (chorus) – repetition of several clauses times, repetition of a part of

a verse, a verse, several verses, appears attended of strophes, Edgar Alan
Poe : Raven

2) ALLITERATION – frequent reocurrence of the same letter or sound in the

beginning of words in a verse, forming a kind of innitial rhyme.

A) consonance – consonant sounds are repleced
B) Assonance – vowel sounds repleced

3) ANAPHORA - the repetition of the same word or a group of words in the

begining of 2 or more successive verses

4) EPIPHORA – the repetition of the same words at the end of succesive verses or

sentences

5) METER – repetition of rhytmical pattern, the measure poetry, each syllable can

be stressed or unstressed, combination of two syllables is called foot – feet

Stressed – Unstressed )

a) IAMB : ) - (today)
b) TROCHEE : -) (daily)
c) DACTYL : -)) (yesterday)
d) SPONDEE : - - (day -break)

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e) ANAPEST : )) - (intervence)

Monometer (1 feet), dimeter (2 foot), trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,
heptameter, octameter

6) RHYME – similarity of final syllable or sylables of two or more lines. In words

that rhyme, there need to be both, difference and similarity of sound.

repetition of stressed vowel, all succeding sounds

a) identify vowel sound (lake, make, bake, sake....)
b) identify the consonant sound that follows it
c) difference in the consonant sound

masculine rhyme – final syllables are stressed and identical in
sound after their differing initial consonants (shark -mark)
femine rhyme – rhyming syllable have two or more syllables
end rhyme – at the end of the line
internal rhyme – appears only in one line
eye rhyme – laughter –doughter, imply –simply, it only looks like
a rhyme, but in fact this does not make a rhyme

C: BASIC STANZA (STROPHE)

Verse – single line in poetry
Stanza – Two or more lines of poetry, sometimes stanza = verse

1. COUPLET (distich) -close form, stanza consisting of 2 verses

2. HEROIC COUPLET – rhyming couplet of iambic pentameter

3. TERCET – triplet, 3 lines

4. TERZA RIMA – a b a, b c b, c d c, d e d – Dante: The Divine

5. QUATRIAN – 4 lines

a) two couplet quatrian (aa bb)
b) interlaced couplet (abab)
c) closed couplet (abba)

6. RHYME ROYAL – 7 lines, each line has pentameter,

sometimes last has hexameter

7. OCTAVA RIMA – 8 lines (ab ab ab cc), George Byron : Don

Juan

8. SPENSERIAN STANZA -9 lines (8 lines –iambic pentameter,

last line – iambic hexameter) – many Shakespeare plays

9. SONNET – most popular closed form – usually iambic

pentameter

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Form –thesis , antithesis, synthesis

A ) ITALIAN (Petrarcan) – octave (2 quatrians) and septet

B ) ENGLISH (Shakespearan) – 3 quatrians and final couplet
- abab cdcd efef gg
- invented by Earl of Surrey

10. BLANK VERSE – unrhymed iambic pentameter or heroic

verse, William Wordsworth : The Prelude

11. FREE VERSE – has irregular pattern(meter), invented by

Walt Whitman:Leaves of Grass