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Morphology 1
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• the smallest unit of grammatical analysis.
a morpheme
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be identifiable from one word to
another
and
Contribute in some way to the
meaning of the whole word.
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MORPHEMES
derivational
inflectional
work – work(-s)
work – work (-ed)
paradigm
read + -er
un- + tie
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inflectional rules - relate different
forms of the same lexeme (an abstract
kind of word of which the word forms are all
inflectional variants)
word-formation - relate two different
lexemes.
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DERIVATION
different words with a shared base.
WORD CLASSES (primary grammatical categories)
CONVERSION (or ZERO DERIVATION):
word passing from one word class to another (or several
others) without taking any affix
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COMPOUND VERBS:
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
COMPOUND NOUNS
HEADED AND HEADLESS COMPOUNDS
BLENDS AND ACRONYMS
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING BOUND
COMBINING FORMS
PHRASAL WORDS
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COMPOUND VERBS
VERB_VERB (VV)
stir-fry, freeze-dry
NOUN –VERB (NV)
hand-wash, air-condition , steam-clean
ADJECTIVE-VERB (AV)
dry-clean, whitewash
PREPOSITION-VERB (PV)
underestimate, outrun, overcook
ADVERB-VERB (Ad-V)
downsize, upgrade
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right-headed
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The rightmost element – head = the
activity denoted by the compound as
whole is a variety of the activity
denoted by that rightmost element.
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Hyphenation
Unhyphenated,solid -compound verbs
with single-syllable modifiers
overhang
hyphenated - longer modifiers
Air-condition
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a modifier of a noun
It consists of two or more morphemes of
which the left-hand component limits or
changes the modification of the right-hand
one
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
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the dark-green dress":
dark limits the green
that modifies dress.
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NOUN-ADJECTIVE (NA)
sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich
ADJECTIVE-ADJECTIVE (AA)
grey-green, red-hot
PREPOSITION-ADJECTIVE (PA)
underfull, overactive
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VA structure, corresponding to the VV verbs would
resemble hypothetical „sing-happy“ (happy enough to
sing),
They scarcely exist, even though it is easy enough to
find plausible meanings for them.
This reflects the relative reluctance of verbs to
participate in compounding generally in English.
All the compounds here are again right – headed.
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Solid compound adjectives
earsplitting, eyecatching, and downtown. (AmE)
ear-splitting, eye-catching (BrE)
Numbers that are spelled out and have the s
uffix -fold added: "fifteenfold", "sixfold".
northwest, northwester, northwesterly,
northwestwards, but not North-West Frontier.
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Hyphenated compound adjectives
A compound adjective is hyphenated if
the hyphen helps the reader
differentiate a compound adjective
from two adjacent adjectives that each
independently modify the noun.
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"acetic acid solution": a bitter solution
producing vinegar or acetic acid (acetic
+ acid + solution)
"acetic-acid solution": a solution of
acetic acid
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old English scholar
Old English scholar
De facto proceedings
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old English scholar: an old person who
is English and a scholar, or an old
scholar who studies English
"Old English scholar": a scholar of Old
"De facto proceedings" (not "de-facto")
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no risk of ambiguities - may be written
without a hyphen:
Sunday morning walk.
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COMPOUND NOUNS
Verb- noun (VN): swearword,
drophammer, playtime
Noun-noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito
net, butterfly net, hair restorer
Adjective-noun (AN): blackboard,
greenstone, faintheart
Preposition – noun (PN): in-group,
outpost, overcoat
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Most of these are also right-headed.
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In fact, almost any pair of nouns can
be juxtaposed in English so as to form
a compound or a phrase – provided
that there is something that this
compound or phrase could plausibly
mean.
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solid or closed :
hyphenated
open or spaced form consisting of
newer combinations of usually longer
words, such as distance learning,
player piano, lawn tennis, etc.
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container
ship/container-ship/containership
and
particle
board/particle-board/particleboard.
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two kinds of NN compound.
Primary or root compound
(hairnet, mosquito net)
Secondary or verbal compound
(hair restorer)
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hairnet
mosquito net
butterfly net
hair restorer
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restorer in hair restorer is derived
from a verb (restore).
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HEADED AND HEADLESS
COMPOUNDS:
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Adjective-noun (AN):
blackboard
greenstone
faintheart
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faintheart
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faintheart - headless -its status as a
noun is not determined by either of its
components.
Headless AN compounds loudmouth,
redshank (a kind of a bird that has red
legs)
headless NN compounds
stickleback( a kind of fish with spines
on its back), sabretooth.
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exocentric – headless compounds –
having a centre „outside themselves“
endocentric. – headed compounds -
having an „internal centre“
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Blends and acronyms
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Talkathon
Cheesburger
Smog
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a kind of compound where at least one
component is reproduced only
partially - blends.
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smog (smoke + fog)
talkathon (talk + marathon)
cheeseburger (cheese + hamburger)
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acronyms –
NATO (for North Atlantic Treaty
Organization), ANZAC (for Australian
and New Zealand Army Corps), RAM
(random access memory), SCSI
(pronounced scuzzy, small computer
system interface), AIDS (aquired
immune deficiency syndrome) .
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If the conventional way of reading the
string is by pronouncing the name of
each letter in turn, as with USA and RP
(received pronunciation), then it is not
an acronym but an abbreviation.
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Compounds containing bound
combining forms.
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compounds that are made up of
bound roots, known as combining
forms.
Anthropology, sociology,
cardiogram, electrocardiogram,
retrograde, retrospect,
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For most of these the meaning of the
whole is clearly determinable from
that of the parts.
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For example: anthrop (o) – human
plus –(o) logy, science or study, yields
a word that means science or study
of human beings and
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Phrasal words
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jack-in-the-box.
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Structurally this has the appearance of
a noun phrase in which the head noun,
jack, is modified by a prepositional
phrase, in the box , exactly parallel to
the phrases :
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People in the street or (a) book on
the shelf.
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They form their plurals by suffixing –s
not to the head noun (as in books on
the shelf)
jack-in-the boxes,
They jumped up and down like jack-in-
the boxes.
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Though structurally a phrase, then, it
behaves as a word.
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Let´s contrast it with another item
which is at least as idiosyncratic in
meaning and which has a similar
structure: brother – in – law.
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A crucial difference is that brother-in-
law forms its plural by affixing – s not
to the whole expression but to the
head noun:
Brothers –in –law
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Despite its hyphens, therefore,
brother-in-law is not a word at all but
a phrase
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Another examples of phrasal words:
Dyed-in-the –wool Republican /s
Couldn´t-care-less attitude
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Dyed-in-the-wool
having strong beliefs, likes, or opinions
that will never change:
Even dyed-in-the-wool traditionalists
were impressed by the changes.
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